By Owais AliReviewed by Lexie CornerMay 5 2025Directed energy weapons (DEW) are an emerging class of defence technology that use concentrated electromagnetic energy or particle beams to disable systems without relying on conventional kinetic projectiles.
Their development has accelerated in response to challenges such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), hypersonic projectiles, and drone swarms, where rapid-response and low-cost-per-engagement solutions are increasingly important.
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DEWs deliver precise, scalable effects over long distances and are now being integrated into air, land, and maritime platforms as the technology matures.
These systems can be engineered for a wide range of effects, from non-contact disruption (such as interfering with electronics or denying access to sensitive areas) to material degradation via concentrated energy delivery.1
How Does the Technology Work?
DEW operate by converting electrical or chemical energy into concentrated beams of electromagnetic radiation or subatomic particles. These beams are directed toward targets to create controlled physical or functional effects.
Effective operation depends on several key factors, including system power, beam quality, atmospheric conditions, and precision targeting, particularly when engaging moving targets.
To meet these demands, DEWs rely on advanced subsystems for beam control, thermal regulation, atmospheric compensation, and high-fidelity target tracking. The specific mechanism of action varies depending on the system type. Each uses different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum to achieve their intended function.2
High-Energy Lasers
High-energy lasers (HELs) are directed energy systems that emit focused beams of coherent light, typically within the visible to infrared spectrum.
A complete HEL system includes a beam director for focusing and tracking, a power source such as energy storage modules or electric generators, and a thermal management system.
These systems convert electrical energy into laser radiation using solid-state laser (SSL) technology, where materials such as neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminium-garnet (Nd:YAG), titanium-doped sapphire, or alexandrite serve as gain media.
HELs operate in continuous-wave or pulsed modes and can deliver power outputs starting from 1 kilowatt, sufficient to damage or melt structural materials. They enable rapid, low-cost engagements and offer scalable output, though their performance may be reduced by environmental factors such as fog, rain, or turbulence.1,3,4
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High-Power Microwaves
High-power microwave (HPM) systems emit concentrated bursts of electromagnetic energy within the microwave frequency range (typically 10 megahertz to 100 gigahertz) to interfere with or disable electronic systems.
Unlike high-energy lasers, HPM platforms can generate wide-area effects, capable of simultaneously affecting multiple electronic components within their electromagnetic field of influence.
These systems use devices such as klystrons, magnetrons, or other microwave generators to convert electrical energy into high-frequency pulses. The pulses are directed through antennas or waveguides to create either focused or distributed electromagnetic fields. Advanced HPM platforms can exceed 100 megawatts of power, inducing electrical surges that exceed standard operating thresholds and disrupt system functionality.
The primary advantage of HPM systems is their ability to penetrate electronic shielding and affect targets without requiring direct line-of-sight. These characteristics make HPM weapons particularly effective for neutralizing enemy communications, radar systems, and electronic infrastructure.4,5
Particle Beam Weapons
Particle beam weapons (PBWs) use high-energy atomic or subatomic particles, such as electrons, protons, or ions, that are accelerated to relativistic speeds using linear accelerators or cyclotrons.
Once accelerated, these particles are focused using electromagnetic fields and directed at a target, disrupting molecular and atomic structures through ionization, atomic displacement, and direct kinetic impact.
PBWs require complex subsystems for acceleration, beam shaping, and high-precision tracking. While they offer a unique approach to high-energy material interaction, these systems remain in early development. Technical challenges such as power demands, beam control, and operational stability currently limit their broader deployment.4
Millimeter Wave Weapons
Millimeter wave weapons (MMWs) operate within the 1 to 10-millimeter wavelength range, delivering more than 1 kilowatt of directed electromagnetic energy. These systems emit high-frequency radiation that interacts primarily with the surface layer of targets, causing rapid localized heating through molecular excitation.
The radiation is generated using devices such as gyroklystrons and is directed through antennas or waveguides toward the target area. MMWs are known for their broader energy dispersion—they influence multiple surfaces or components simultaneously within a defined coverage zone.
While primarily designed for non-destructive applications, high-intensity exposures can result in thermal effects. Their tunable energy output and directional control make MMW platforms well suited to scenarios requiring controlled, short-range energy delivery with minimal physical impact.3,4
Global Directed Energy Programs
DragonFire (United Kingdom)
DragonFire is the UK’s primary laser-directed energy platform, developed by the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl) in partnership with MBDA, Leonardo, and QinetiQ.
It integrates a beam director with three optical apertures that support wide-area scanning, mid-range tracking, and high-precision targeting.
The system produces a high-energy laser beam capable of achieving sub-centimetric precision at ranges of up to 1 km. With an estimated per-use cost under £10, DragonFire demonstrates the potential for low-cost, high-accuracy energy delivery, offering a scalable alternative to conventional interception technologies.6
THOR (United States)
The Tactical High-Power Microwave Operational Responder (THOR) is an HPM system developed by the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory to address emerging challenges from clustered aerial technologies such as drone swarms. It emits a broad pulse of microwave energy to disable multiple unmanned aerial systems (UAS) at the same time.
THOR is housed in a 20-foot container, is transportable by C-130 aircraft, and can be set up in under three hours with minimal operator training.
Following a two-year evaluation, the system demonstrated successful wide-area electronic disruption during 2023 field tests.5
HELIOS (United States)
The High Energy Laser with Integrated Optical-dazzler and Surveillance (HELIOS) is a 60 kW-class directed energy platform developed by Lockheed Martin for maritime use. It integrates high-energy laser engagement with optical dazzler and surveillance capabilities in a single, integrated system.
HELIOS operates at the speed of light and is designed for continuous use with a robust energy storage architecture. Its marinized construction enables sustained deployment in naval environments, while its modular design supports future upgrades in both power capacity and control software.7
Future Outlook
As directed energy technologies continue to mature, their role in modern defense systems is expected to grow. While technical and regulatory challenges remain, ongoing research is steadily improving performance and reliability.
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References and Further Reading
- Obering, H. T. (2019). Directed energy weapons are real... and disruptive. Prism, 8(3), 36-47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26864275
- GAO. (2023). Science & tech spotlight: Directed energy Weapons. https://www.gao.gov/assets/830/825926.pdf
- Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. (2024). Fact Sheet: Directed Energy Weapons. https://armscontrolcenter.org/fact-sheet-directed-energy-weapons/
- Government of Canada. (2025). Directed energy weapons. https://science.gc.ca/site/science/en/safeguarding-your-research/guidelines-and-tools-implement-research-security/emerging-technology-trend-cards/directed-energy-weapons
- Kelly M. Sayler, Jennifer DiMascio, Andrew Feickert & Ronald O'Rourke. (2024). Department of defense directed energy weapons: Background and issues for congress. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/weapons/R46925.pdf
- DSTL & MOD. (2024). Advanced future military laser achieves UK first. https://www.gov.uk/government/news/advanced-future-military-laser-achieves-uk-first
- Lockheed Martin Corporation. (2021). More Than a Laser, HELIOS is an Integrated Weapon System. https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/news/features/2021/more-than-a-laser-helios-is-an-integrated-weapon-system.html
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